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In many languages, cases are used to define how a noun relates to the rest of the sentence. Nouns tend to play certain roles, and cases are used to define each noun’s role in the sentence. In English, case is usually either defined by the noun’s position in the sentence, or by using a preposition with the noun. But in many languages, the noun itself is changed slightly.

Hebrew does change its nouns, but it does so by combining them with pronouns and prepositions. However, the genitive case can cause some special changes to the noun, using what is called the construct state. The construct state is the rough equivalent of the English word “of” (which English often uses to denote the genitive case). The genitive case is used for nouns that are describing another noun in some way, such as “day of reckoning” or “house of David”.

In the phrase “horses of David”, the approach in Hebrew would be to put “horses” in the construct state: “horses-of David”. The word “David” would be in the absolute state, and the two words would be in what is called the construct relation. This pairs “horses” and “David” together.

In a construct relation, the governing word (horses of) is:

1) Always first

2) Never has a definite article

3) Is always in the construct state

Meanwhile, the governed word (David) is:

1) Always immediately after the governing word

2) Is always in the absolute state

Sometimes the two words are also joined by a makkeph.

In the previous lesson we learned the endings of the absolute state (These endings are what are normally used). The construct state is usually accompanied by different endings. These endings differ depending on the number of the noun:

Masculine singular and feminine plural do not change

Feminine singular uses the old ending תַ†instead of הָ

Dual and masculine plural use יֵ†instead of their normal endings

The construct state also can often cause some of the vowels within the word to change, generally by being shortened.

Exercises

וְהָאָָרֶץָָ

דָם־†הבְרִיתָ

דִבְ†רָי†הבְרִָיתָָ

בָית†אֱָלֹהִָיםָָ

שֵֽׁם־†המָק֥וֹםָָ

דִבְ†רי†הנָבִָיאָָ

מלְ†כָי†הָָאָָרֶץָָ

וּ†מָלְ†כת־שְבָָאָ

Vocabulary

סוּס†– horse

In Hebrew, there are only two genders: masculine and feminine. There is no neuter gender. Some nouns have both masculine and feminine versions – the above noun for “horse” is an example of this. In the masculine it refers to a stallion, but in the feminine it refers to a mare.

In grammar, “number” refers to whether a word is singular or plural. English has two numbers (singular and plural), but Hebrew has three. They are the same as English, except that a dual number is available to use for pairs of things. Note that the dual cannot be used with just any noun, but only nouns that naturally come in pairs, such as “foot” or “hand”.

This is the difference between singular and plural among masculine nouns:

סוּס†horse סוּסִים†horses

The singular is simply the normal vocabulary form of the word given at the beginning of the lesson. The plural adds יִם†to the end of the word.

This is how to change the number of a feminine noun:

סוּסָה†mare סוּסוֺת†mares

It is typical for feminine nouns to end in הָ†(exceptions are not uncommon). The original ending was תַ†, which is sometimes used instead. The feminine plural ending is וֺת†.

The dual is formed by adding an ending to the singular form of the noun. The dual ending is the same regardless of gender.

סוּסַיִם†pair of horses סוּסָתַיִ†ם†pair of mares

The dual ending is יִַם†. In the case of סוּס†, the feminine ends in a he (ה), which changes to a taw.

There are essentially four different endings in this lesson: the masculine plural, the feminine singular, the feminine plural, and the dual. However, Hebrew nouns of one gender sometimes use the endings of the other gender. There are also some nouns that are always plural, such as מַיִם

and אֶלוֺהִים†.

Note that מַיִם†and שמַיִם†are not dual, but plural. In the singular they are

מַי†and שָמַי†, and the plural ending, when added, gives the illusion of a dual ending.

יוֹ†מָ֑יִם†ה†מלְ†כה†מק֣וֹם†וסֻסִָ֑ים†וּ†מַֽלְ†כת†ה†ש†מַ֖יִם

הכֹּ†הן†ה†מַֽיִם†וְ†י†דַ֖יִם†דְ†בר†ו†המְ†לכִים†עי†ניִם

Hebrew has a definite article (the), but no indefinite article (a/an). The definite article is the letter he (ה). It is attached to the beginning of a noun as a prefix. It also causes the letter immediately following it to acquire a daghesh forte, and normally has a pathah. So, while “heavens” is שָׁמַיִם , “the heavens” is הַשָׁמַיִם .

If the next letter is a guttural (gutturals cannot have a daghesh forte), then the vowel (normally pathah) is usually lengthened instead. In this case the definite article typically has a kamets, but sometimes it has a seghol or stays with a pathah. So, while “earth” is אֶרֶֶץ , “the earth” is הֶָׁאֶָׁרֶץ . Instead of the א (a guttural) taking daghesh forte, the vowel under the ה is lengthened to a kamets.

Another very common prefix is the conjunction “and”, which is simply a waw (ו) attached to the beginning of a word. It is pointed with either a shewa (וֶ), a shurek (וּ), or sometimes a kamets (וֶָׁ). So, while “spirit” is

רוּחֶַ , “and spirit” is וֶרוּחֶַ , and “and the earth” is והָׁאָׁרֶץ .

Identify the vocabulary word, and whether or not “and” or “the” is prefixed:

בֵּית הַבֵַּיִתֵּ

וְהַבֵַּיִֵּתֵּ וְדַםֵּ

אָדֵָּםֵּ הַדָבֵָּרֵּ

הָאֵָּבֵּ וְהַ נֵּ פשֵּ

וְאָבֵּ וְיוֹם

הֵָּאָדֵָּםֵּ וְהַמִזְ בֵּחֵַּ

וְגוֹיֵּ הַכֹּ הֵּןֵּ

הַ לֵּבֵּ הַמָקוֹםֵּ

וּ מֵּ לךֵּ

Vocabulary

קוֺלֶ voice

אָׁחֶ brother

חֶרֶבֶ sword

יֶלֶדֶ child

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Hebrew is an inflected language. This means that changes in parsing and grammar are accomplished by altering (inflecting) the words. These changes follow patterns that will be learned in the following lessons. Hebrew also commonly adds prefixes and suffixes to words, sometimes making the word much longer than it originally would have been.

As we learn about inflecting Hebrew words, some exceptions to the previously presented rules will emerge. One exception is the half-closed syllable. This is a syllable that ends in a vocal shewa (the rule is that a shewa that ends a syllable is a silent shewa). Some words normally contain a vowel, but when inflected the vowel is changed to a shewa. In this case, the shewa may be vocal even if the rules say it should be silent. Obviously this can only be determined by knowing the vocabulary form of the word, and so there is no other rule for identifying half-closed syllables.

It is fairly common to see words joined together by a hyphen (for example: עַל־פְּ נֵ֥י ) much like in English. This mark is called a “makkef”. Makkef joins the two words together. They are pronounced together, and grammatically they are essentially considered one word. Sometimes, this joining together using a makkef will cause the pointing to be adjusted from what it would be otherwise.

אֶּל־יְׂהוֹשֻׁעַ אַחֲרֵי בִן־נוּן הַזֶּה יִשְׂרָאֵל לִבְׂנֵי

אֶּת־הַיַרְׂדֵן כָל־מָקוֹם וְׂהַלְׂבָנוֹן הַשָמֶּש תַצְׂלִיחַ

Vocabulary

בַּיִת house

דָּ ם blood

ל ח ם bread

מָּקוֺם place

תּוֺרָּ ה law

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Normally, when he (ה) ends a word, it is not pronounced. However, its pronunciation can be strengthened by a mappik (הּ) – a dot in the center. This only occurs when it is the last letter of the word.

If pathah occurs under he with a mappik (הּ), heth (ח), or ayin (ע), it is pronounced before the consonant it is under, rather than after the consonant. This is called “pathah furtive”. For example, רוּ†חַ†is pronounced “ruach”, not “rucha”. This does not form a separate syllable – therefore, רוּ†חַ†only has one syllable, since the pathah is pathah furtive.

Heth, he, ayin, and aleph are the four guttural letters of the Hebrew alphabet. Because of their breathy, weak pronunciation, they can cause vowels around them to sometimes change, as in the above paragraph. This will become more of a factor when learning how to conjugate the verb. For now, here are the three important rules of gutturals:

1) The gutturals and resh (ר) cannot be doubled by daghesh forte.

2) The gutturals usually take a compound shewa.

3) The gutturals prefer the a-class vowels (pathah, kamets).

These rules can help identify when the gutturals are triggering changes around them.

יַעֲ†קַבַ†ותִּמָּ†לַאַ†ַַ†וַרוּ†חַ†ַ†מ†ר†חַ†פתַ†ַ†למִּינַָּהַּ†ַַ†אַ†לַה†ַ†בהִּבַָּ†ראַָּםַ

Vocabulary

נַ†פשׁ†–ַ soul

רוּ†חַ†– spirit, breath, wind

מִזְבֵּ†חַ†– altar

קֹ†דשׁ†– holy

גָּדוֹל†– great

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Waw (ו) is used in constructing two vowels: full holem (וֺ) and shurek (וּ). At these times two things happen to the consonant waw: 1) It is no longer pronounced; only the vowel sound is pronounced. 2) It no longer counts as a consonant, but the whole thing is considered a vowel. However, if the waw of a full holem is surrounded by vowels before and after, the waw is pronounced. Therefore, ק וֶֺה is pronounced “qoweh”, not “qoeh”; עֺ ון is pronounced “awon”.

In general, yodh (י) will essentially form a diphthong when it follows a vowel and is itself unpointed. In English, the letter ‘y’ may combine with the previous vowel to form the sounds ‘ay’ as in ‘bayou’, ‘ey’ as in ‘convey’, and ‘oy’ as in ‘toy’. When unpointed and immediately preceded by a vowel, yodh and the vowel combine to produce the same sounds. Note tsere yodh and hirek yodh, which were covered in lesson 4.

When a holem is used with shin/sin (ש), it can cause some potential confusion, since sin (שׂ) and shin (שׁ) are distinguished by placing a dot above one corner or the other. At times the holem can “blend in” with this dot already being used. However, a vowel missing from its usual place can alert us to this situation. If there is no pointing preceding a shin, then a holem has blended in: משֶֺֺׁה is pronounced “mosheh”. If there is no vowel following a sin, then a holem has blended in: שׂנֵא is pronounced “sone”. This also means that, if a holem follows a shin “sho”, it is written thus: שֺׁ.

שֵׂעִיר ֺֺוַיְהִי ֺֺיִשְרָאֵׂל ֺ אֲלֵׂהֶם ֺ הַיַרְדֵׂן ֺ שֶבֶת ֺ הַזֶה נָתַתִי ֺ לְיִצְחָק ֺ אַבְרָהָם ֺ אַחֲרֵׂיהֶם ֺ אוּכַל ֺ לְבַדִי ֺ

וְהִנְכֶם ֺ הַשָמַיִם ֺ יֹסֵׂף ֺ אֶלֶף ֺ פְעָמִים ֺ דִבֶר ֺ

וִידֻעִים ֺ אֲלָפִים ֺ לְשִבְטֵׂיכֶם

Vocabulary

הַר mountain

צֺ אן flock

אֺלֹהִים God

גּ וי nation, people

שׁמַיִם heavens

We have covered some things about shewa, particularly in the second half of Lesson 5. Simple shewa is another symbol that can appear under a letter (אְ). It can have one of two roles: either it is a vocal shewa standing for a half-vowel sound, or it is a silent shewa serving as a syllable divider. Lesson 5 covered vocal shewa; now we will take what we have learned about syllables and cover silent shewa, and how to tell the difference between the two.

Silent shewa, unlike vocal shewa, is not pronounced. It is used to mark the end of a syllable. Therefore, a simple shewa is silent if:

1) It follows a short vowel

2) It precedes another shewa (such as יִ ש מרוּ )

A simple shewa is vocal if:

1) It follows an unaccented long vowel

2) It follows another shewa (see rule 2 above)

3) It is at the beginning of the word (such as שמ וְ )

4) It is under a letter with a daghesh forte

The reason for rule 1 of both vocal and silent shewa is this: In Lesson 6 we covered the difference between open and closed syllables. Open syllables end in a vowel, and generally have a long vowel. Therefore, the following shewa is not ending or dividing the syllable – it is under the consonant that begins the next syllable, and is a vocal shewa. Closed syllables end in a consonant, and generally have a short vowel. The following shewa is not sitting under a consonant that is beginning the

next syllable, but under the consonant that ends the previous syllable. Therefore it is a syllable divider – a silent shewa.

Rule 2 (for both vocal and silent shewa) deals with when there are back-to-back shewas. In that case the first one is silent, and the second one is vocal.

Rule 3 for vocal shewa simply points out that since silent shewa is a syllable divider, it cannot be at the beginning of a syllable, so being at the beginning of the word guarantees that it is vocal.

Rule 4 for vocal shewa points out that, since daghesh forte doubles the letter, a syllable divider is unnecessary. The previous syllable ends with the first instance of the doubled consonant, and the next syllable begins with the second instance.

Find the syllables in these words using the rules from Lesson 6, and determine whether the simple shewas are vocal or silent.

סָ מְךְ מְ רפֵּא מְְְְִ ש בצ ות צדְָקָה קְְְָר וב יְְָמִין בְ עדְְְ

בְרִית חשְרךְ חְ ש מל מ עְלָה פְְוּתִי נְְָשְִיםְ גְְּמוּלָהְ

Vocabulary

ברִיתְ covenant

דָבָרְ word, thing

שָל וםְ peace

ר אְשְ head

נָבִיא prophet

The Hebrew alphabet is made up entirely of consonants. Originally, though the Hebrew words used vowels, the vowels were not written down. Eventually, as Hebrew began to drop out of use, scribes began inventing systems to record the vowels and proper pronunciation of the words. One of those systems of vowel pointings is the system used in Hebrew Old Testaments today.

מִ Hirek ‘i’ as in ‘trip’

מיִ Hirek Yodh ‘i’ as in ‘elite’

מִ Tsere ‘a’ as in ‘late’

מיִ Tsere Yodh ‘a’ as in ‘late’

מִ Seghol ‘e’ as in ‘red’

מִ Pathah ‘a’ as in ‘bad’

מִ Kamets ‘a’ as in ‘father’

מִ Holem ‘o’ as in ‘over’

וֹ Full Holem ‘o’ as in ‘over’

מ וִ ‘moweh’

וּ Shurek ‘u’ as in ‘rude’

מִ Kibbuts ‘u’ as in ‘shut’

מִ Vocal Shewa ‘ə’ as in ‘rəmove’, ‘bəlow’

There are rules about when Shewa is vocal and when it is not. We will look at them later.

Note that when Holem is attached to ש, the Holem may be combined with the dot already being used to distinguish between שׁ and שׂ. You may also see this: שִׁ.

Vowel pointings are pronounced after the letter they are attached to. Therefore, מִ is pronounced “mah”, not “ahm”. However, when waw has a Shurek or Full Holem, it drops the “w” sound and only pronounces the vowel. Therefore וִּ is pronounced “oo”, not “woo”; and וִ is pronounced “oh”, not “woh”. Shurek and Full Holem are only used with waw.

By way of example: שׁ וִ מר is pronounced “shomar”; א חדִ is pronounced “ĕchŏd”; etc.

מִן גִם שׁם ע שׂה ל חִם י לד ח סד מ בית פ קדִִִ

ק ול רִִִוּת אישׁ הִִוּא מ לך יהוּ דה שִִׁוּב ז ק נִ תיִִִ

יִג דלוִִּ

Several of the Hebrew letters can be written differently at times. The first type of difference is called a daghesh lene. It is a dot in the center of the letter. This hardens the pronunciation of that letter. Only six letters can have a daghesh lene.

בּ Beth pronounced “b” as in “barn”

גּ Gimel pronounced “g” as in “gravel”

דּ Daleth pronounced “d” as in “door”

כּ Kaph pronounced “k” as in “king”

פּ Pe pronounced “p” as in “porch”

תּ Taw pronounced “t” as in “torch”

Be aware that not every dot in the center of a Hebrew letter is a daghesh lene. There are other reasons, besides hardening the pronunciation, that can cause a dot to be in the center of the letter. We will go over those in the near future.

The second type of difference we will cover is a change to how some letters are written when they are the last letter of the word. These five letters have a “final form” as follows:

כ Kaph’s Final Form: ך

מ Mem’s Final Form: ם

נ Nun’s Final Form: ן

פ Pe’s Final Form: ף

צ Tsadhe’s Final Form: ץ

For example; the word for water is not written מַיִמ but rather מַיִם . The Mem uses its regular form when it is the first letter of the word, but uses its final form when it is the last letter of the word.

The Hebrew alphabet contains twenty-two letters. There are no vowels in this alphabet, and there are also no capital letters. Two of these letters (א and ע) orinigally had a guttural pronunciation or glottal stop. In general, we will simply pronounce the vowel that happens to be attached to those two letters.

א Aleph (Guttural, no pronunciation)

ב Beth pronounced “v” as in “vacuum”

ג Gimel pronounced “g” as in “yogurt”

ד Daleth pronounced “th” as in “there”

ה He pronounced “h” as in “hotel”

ו Waw pronounced “w” as in “well”

ז Zayin pronounced “z” as in “Lazarus”

ח Heth pronounced “ch” as in “Bach”

ט Teth pronounced “t” as in “tiny”

י Yodh pronounced “y” as in “yellow”

כ Kaph pronounced “k” as in “king”

ל Lamedh pronounced “l” as in “locust”

מ Mem pronounced “m” as in “mother”

נ Nun pronounced “n” as in “nonsense”

ס Samekh pronounced “s” as in “sound”

ע Ayin (Guttural, no pronunciation)

פ Pe pronounced “ph” as in “philosophy”

צ Tsadhe pronounced “ts” as in “fits”

ק Qoph pronounced “q” as in “unique”

ר Resh pronounced “r” as in “roll”

ש: (the next two are considered to be the same letter)

שׂ Sin pronounced “s” as in “sound”

שׁ Shin pronounced “sh” as in “shine”

ת Taw pronounced “th” as in “thin”

There are no capital letters in the Hebrew alphabet. However, a handful of potential changes to some these letters’ form and pronunciation also need to be learned. We will cover these in the next lesson.

Introduction

The Old Testament is written in Ancient Hebrew, with a few sections (mainly in Daniel and Ezra) in Aramaic, which is similar. Ancient Hebrew is not exactly the same as Modern Hebrew. Ancient Hebrew stopped being spoken over one thousand years ago, and Hebrew was only revived as a widely spoken language after Israel once again became a nation in the previous century. This Modern Hebrew has changed and adjusted a number of things about Ancient Hebrew to adapt it to their needs.

Hebrew is a Semitic language. There are some things common to Semitic languages that are not found in Indo-European languages like English, Greek, Latin, and Spanish.

The Hebrew Writing System – Lesson 1

There are two major differences between the English and Hebrew writing systems (besides the alphabet):

First, Hebrew is written backwards – from right to left. To read Hebrew, you begin with the right side of the book instead of the left side. You start with the page on the right instead of the page on the left. You begin with the word on the right end of the line, and you read each word starting with the letter on the right and ending with the letter on the left:

Second, Hebrew did not originally write down their vowels. Only consonants and gutturals were written down. Hebrew words had vowels, and they were spoken using vowels, but the vowels were not written down. Because of that the above line would look like this:

Later, some scribes invented a system for including the vowels. They added small symbols around the letters, like this:

Some further examples:

The fundamental significance of the present tense Greek verb is to denote progress. It is primarily linear; however, it may indicate punctiliar action.

The Progressive Present:

This use is the nearest to the root idea of the tense. The action of the verb is in progress or in a persistent state. When used with the indicative mood, it relates to the present time.

The present tense utilizes three kinds of action. It may be used descriptively to indicate the action taking place, or conveying a more pictorial present. The distinctive force of the present may also be to present a picture in the mind of the event in progress as occurring.

In the parable of the ten virgins, we come to the foolish virgins. They have an issue because they failed to prepare. σβέννυνται denotes the occurring action of the lamps going out. The present tense of σβέννυμι (to quench) conveys the ongoing action, depicting lamps slowly fading as they run out of oil (Matthew 25:8).

The Indicative Present Passive Ending:

Person Singular Plural

1st -ομαι -όμεθα

2nd -ῃ -εσθε

3rd -εται -ονται

In Acts 8:30, Philip asks the Ethiopian Eunuch if he understands what he is reading. He was reading from the prophet Isaiah. γινώσκεις is the present indicative active form of γινώσκω (to experientially know). Along with γινώσκεις, Philip employs ἀναγινώσκεις, the present indicative active form of ἀναγινώσκω (to read). Both verbs use the present tense to describe actions that are currently occurring.

The Indicative Present Active Endings:

Person Singular Plural

1st -ω -ομεν

2nd -εις -ετε

3rd -ει -ουσι(ν)

The action or state being expressed by the Progressive Present is in the past and is still in progress at the present. Usually has an adverb of time. Occurs frequently in the New Testament.

The present tense is used in the sense of continual, existing present action in Romans 1:16 where Paul states that he is not ashamed of the gospel of the Christ. Paul deploys ἐπαισχύνομαι, the present passive form of ἐπαισχύνομαι (to put to shame).

ἐπαισχύνομαι does not utilize the present active forms. This word is only found in the middle or passive forms. Middle expresses reflective actions, and passive indicates the subject is being acted upon. Some grammarians use the concept of “a deponent verb” to label verbs they perceive to be active, but do not have an active form. However, upon close examination of these words, there is no justifiable reason to modify the meaning of the Greek forms of the verb to force them into the concept of English grammar. All so-called “deponent” verbs possess an active form; however, they are not used in writing due to the nature of the kind of action and its relation to the subject that the word conveys. These words use a middle or passive voice for emphasis, thereby indicating that the subject is either acting on his own behalf or being acted upon. Therefore, they should be translated as closely as possible to convey the Greek concept, in accordance with Greek grammar. Although there are cases where the Greek verb cannot be expressed in the middle or passive in English, this is due to English grammar’s lack of mechanisms to handle such cases, not a defect in Greek grammar. e.g., John 1:9—a man cannot cause himself to come into the world. English cannot convey this in the passive, whereas Greek is perfectly fine with using a passive for ἔρχομαι (to come), since it denotes that a person comes either by acting on his own behalf or by being acted upon.

Since the locative and dative cases use the same endings, context and how the preposition is assisting the noun in its relationship to the sentence will determine which case is used. Case is always a result of function, not form. The dative case conveys personal interest, whereas the locative case expresses physical location.

In Matthew 25:14-30, Jesus likened the kingdom of the Heavens to a man who traveled to a far country and gave three of his servants some of his money to manage while he was gone. In Matthew 25:27, σύν is used with the dative case. When he returned, one of his servants had buried the money to protect it rather than use it to increase his master’s wealth. This malignantly evil and lazy servant is rebuked for his actions. At the very least, he should have put the money in the bank so that it would be returned to his master with interest.

σύν expresses our association with Christ in His death in Romans 6:8. Since we died with Christ, we also live with Him. The second occurrence of “with” in this passage expressed in this verse is a compound word that uses σύν with living (συζάω) to express our closely associated life with Christ as a result of our association with His death.

In the locative case, σύν conveys a physical closeness. In Romans 8:32, σύν expresses that we are freely given all things with Christ, as shown by God not sparing His own Son but delivering Him up for us all. At the end of the book of Romans, Paul lists a few of the saints who are physically with him and desire to send greetings to the saints in Rome, Romans 16:14–15.

σύν is extensively used in composition. This use adds emphasis to other words, expressing a close affiliation.

συνάγω conveys a close gathering by combining σύν with ἄγω. When the Magi came from the east looking for the King of the Jews, Herod gathered together the chief priests along with the scribes of the people to inquire where Christ would be born, Matthew 2:4. In Troas, on the first day of the week, the disciples gathered together to break bread, Acts 20:7–8.

συνείδησις is a combination of σύν with οἶδα that conveys the concept of a conscience. Conscience is intuitive knowledge closely associated with a person’s actions. Based upon their knowledge, the conscience will either accuse or excuse a person’s actions, Romans 2:15. Due to the conscience being based upon intuitive knowledge, it can be weak when it comes to food, drink, and observation of days, 1 Corinthians 8:12; 10:25–27. When we suffer because of a good conscience, which relates to how our knowledge of who we are in Christ aligned with our actions, we are participating in a benefit God has given to us without consideration of merit; to suffer for righteousness, 1 Peter 2:19. It is honorable to suffer for a good conscience toward God when we wrongfully suffer for doing what is right.

συνετός combines σύν (“with” or “together”) with ἵημι (“to set or place”) to express the bringing together of things. Thus, it conveys understanding. In Matthew 11:25, Jesus communicated to the Father, thanking Him for hiding the things related to the Kingdom of the Heavens from the wise and understanding of that time, but revealing it to the inarticulate babblers. The educated, who should have known that Christ was coming, did not grasp who He was. However, those who were not brought up as scribes and priests recognized that He was the Messiah.

Within the Greek New Testament, σύν is found in composition with approximately 135 different words. Thus, it has a significant role in clarifying the use of words when a close association is indicated.

πρός is a preposition used with the genitive, locative, and accusative cases. It assists nouns with motion, presence or proximity, opposition, and reference or interest. It is distinct from εἰς, which emphasizes motion into, ἐν, which indicates location, and both ἀπό and ἐκ, which denote motion from and out from.

When utilized with the accusative case, πρός may indicate proximity or presence. John 1:1, The Word was facing the God. John 1:2 He was with the God in the beginning. In Romans 3:26, πρός expresses towards relating to a display of God’s righteousness. The God before set Christ as a satisfaction (propitiation) facing the demonstration of His righteousness in the deferral of punishment for sin previously committed. Abraham was justified by his works, but not facing (in the presence of) God (Romans 4:2). His works displayed his faith. His faith is what justified him before God, not his works (Romans 4:3). In Romans 5:1, πρός is used to indicate that the peace we have, resulting from being justified by faith through Jesus Christ, is before God. In His ascension, Christ gave gifts to the Church towards the equipping of the saints (Ephesians 4:12) in order that they are no longer inarticulate babblers tossed around by every wind of teaching by the craftiness facing deceitful methodologies (Ephesians 4:14).

πρός may also express with reference to, or in the interest of. With reference to the angels, they are made ministering spirits. In contrast, with reference to the Son, He is God (Hebrews 1:7–8).

In Acts 27:34, πρός assists the genitive case when Paul uses it while speaking to the men on the ship with him. They had been caught in a fierce storm for many days without food. He implores them to take nourishment in the interest of their salvation from this situation.

The locative case employs πρός to assist in indicating location. In Mark 5:11, a large herd of swine was feeding at the mountain. The demons who possessed a man in the region encounter Jesus, who permits them to enter the swine rather than the abyss (Mark 5:12–13). As Jesus is at the descent of the Mount of Olives, the multitude begins to praise Him, saying, “Well spoken of is the King who comes in the name of the Lord (Luke 19:37). When Christ was taken before the high priest, Peter stayed at the door. John, who was known to the high priest, entered in, while Peter faced the sifting of Satan. A time that Jesus had told him was coming (John 18:16). While Mary was at the tomb of Christ weeping because it was opened, she encountered two angels, who declared to her that He is risen (John 20:11–12).

πρός may also be used in composition. In Luke 9:41, πρός adds emphasis to άγω to express bearing before (προσάγω). A man carrying his child to Jesus begged for His assistance. In 1 Peter 3:18, Peter uses προσάγω concerning Christ, who suffered for our sins, that He should bring us before the God. In Acts 23:23, the commander of the garrison in Jerusalem called for two of his centurions. προσκαλέω is utilized to emphasize that the calling was for them to come before his face. προστίθημι expressed placing with and often indicates adding (Luke 12:25; Galatians 3:19). When πρός is joined to λαμβάνω, it conveys taking or receiving to the face of. In Mark 8:32, Peter took Jesus aside (προσλαμβάνω) to rebuke Him concerning His words about His death in Jerusalem. In Romans 14:1, Paul uses προσλαμβάνω to indicate that the stronger brother is to receive alongside a weaker brother in the faith, apart from causing doubt. πρός and κρατος are joined to emphasize the idea of making ready or continuing. In Mark 3:9, the disciples make ready (προσκαρτερέω) a small boat for Christ because of the multitude. In Colossians 4:2, Paul encourages us to continue (προσκαρτερέω) in worship, being vigilant in it with thanksgiving. ρός is a preposition used with the genitive, locative, and accusative cases. It assists nouns with motion, presence or proximity, opposition, and reference or interest. It is distinct from εἰς, which emphasizes motion into, ἐν, which indicates location, and both ἀπό and ἐκ, which denote motion from and out from.

When utilized with the accusative case, πρός may indicate proximity or presence. John 1:1, The Word was facing the God. John 1:2 He was with the God in the beginning. In Romans 3:26, πρός expresses towards relating to a display of God’s righteousness. The God before set Christ as a satisfaction (propitiation) facing the demonstration of His righteousness in the deferral of punishment for sin previously committed. Abraham was justified by his works, but not facing (in the presence of) God (Romans 4:2). His works displayed his faith. His faith is what justified him before God, not his works (Romans 4:3). In Romans 5:1, πρός is used to indicate that the peace we have, resulting from being justified by faith through Jesus Christ, is before God. In His ascension, Christ gave gifts to the Church towards the equipping of the saints (Ephesians 4:12) in order that they are no longer inarticulate babblers tossed around by every wind of teaching by the craftiness facing deceitful methodologies (Ephesians 4:14).

πρός may also express with reference to, or in the interest of. With reference to the angels, they are made ministering spirits. In contrast, with reference to the Son, He is God (Hebrews 1:7–8).

In Acts 27:34, πρός assists the genitive case when Paul uses it while speaking to the men on the ship with him. They had been caught in a fierce storm for many days without food. He implores them to take nourishment in the interest of their salvation from this situation.

The locative case employs πρός to assist in indicating location. In Matthew 5:11, a large herd of swine was feeding at the mountain. The demons who possessed a man in the region encounter Jesus, who permits them to enter the swine rather than the abyss (Mark 5:12–13). As Jesus is at the descent of the Mount of Olives, the multitude begins to praise Him, saying, “Well spoken of is the King who comes in the name of the Lord (Luke 19:37). When Christ was taken before the high priest, Peter stayed at the door. John, who was known to the high priest, entered in, while Peter faced the sifting of Satan. A time that Jesus had told him was coming (John 18:16). While Mary was at the tomb of Christ weeping because it was opened, she encountered two angels, who declared to her that He is risen (John 20:11–12).

πρός may also be used in composition. In Luke 9:41, πρός adds emphasis to άγω to express bearing before (προσάγω). A man carrying his child to Jesus begged for His assistance. In 1 Peter 3:18, Peter uses προσάγω concerning Christ, who suffered for our sins, that He should bring us before the God. In Acts 32:21, the commander of the garrison in Jerusalem called for two of his centurions. προσκαλέω is utilized to emphasize that the calling was for them to come before his face. προστίθημι expressed placing with and often indicates adding (Luke 12:25; Galatians 3:19). When πρός is joined to λαμβάνω, it conveys taking or receiving to the face of. In Mark 8:32, Peter took Jesus aside (προσλαμβάνω) to rebuke Him concerning His words about His death in Jerusalem. In Romans 14:1, Paul uses προσλαμβάνω to indicate that the stronger brother is to receive alongside a weaker brother in the faith, apart from causing doubt. πρός and κρατος are joined to emphasize the idea of making ready or continuing. In Mark 3:9, the disciples make ready (προσκαρτερέω) a small boat for Christ because of the multitude. In Colossians 4:2, Paul encourages us to continue (προσκαρτερέω) in worship, being vigilant in it with thanksgiving.

The preposition πρό assists the ablative case or is used as a prefix to express before in terms of time, place, or rank. The temporal use of πρό expresses before; when conveying spatial meaning, it is defined as in front of or before in position; and when used to demonstrate rank, πρό indicates a preference or prominence.

When πρό is used to denote time, it relates to an action or state before another event or time. This is the primary use of πρό. In Matthew 5:12, Jesus instructs the Israelites who would follow Him to be happy when others revile and persecute them while speaking all kinds of false things against them. They are to rejoice because great is their reward in heaven, for the Jews also persecuted the prophets before them. Paul closes his letter to the assembly in Rome with greetings, including from Andronicus and Junia, his countrymen and fellow prisoners, who were in Christ before him (Romans 16:7). In 1 Corinthians 2:7, Paul uses πρό to indicate the timing concerning the mystery that was hidden before the ages, but in the wisdom of God is now being revealed through Paul’s words. When it comes to judging motives, we are not even to judge ourselves. For when the Lord comes, He will reveal the counsels of the heart (1 Corinthians 4:5). In 2 Corinthians chapter twelve, Paul writes about his experience with death. He writes of a time that was before fourteen years had passed since the time of writing. This man was caught up to the edge of the third heaven (2 Corinthians 12:2). The gospel preached by Paul did not come from men. After his experience on the Damascus road, Paul did not go up to the apostles before him, but out in the Arabia and then he returned to Damascus proclaiming that Jesus is the Messiah (Galatians 1:17). Before certain men from James came to Antioch, Peter would eat with the Gentiles (Galatians 2:12). However, once they came, Peter separated and drew away many of the Jews with him. Paul rebukes him for his actions, for in Christ there is neither Jew nor Gentile. Israel was kept under guard by the law until faith in Christ came (Galatians 3:23). The law was a tutor to bring them to Christ, but since faith in Christ has come, there is no longer a need for a child-trainer (Galatians 3:24–25).

πρό may be used to express preference or prominence. In James 5:12, James writes, “But above all ...” encouraging fellow Christians not swear by heaven or earth, or by any other oath by any other means. Instead, their speech is to be clear, accurate, and with full intention of fulfilling what they state they will do. After noting that the end of all things is at hand, Peter encourages the saints to, above all, have a fervent love for themselves, using their Spiritual gifts as good stewards of the manifold grace of God (1 Peter 4:8–10).

In Acts 14:13, the priest of Zeus, whose temple was before (πρό) the city, brought out oxen to make a sacrifice to Paul and Barnabas because of the healing of a lame man. The apostles performed many signs and wonders in Jerusalem after the resurrection of Christ, testifying to His resurrection. In response, the high priest and Sadducees had them thrown into prison. However, during the night, God sent an angel to release them. When the officers of the temple went the next day to retrieve them, finding the guards before (πρό) the door and all things secured, they did not find the apostles within (Acts 5:23).

When used in composition, πρό primarily conveys ‘before’ in the sense of place or prominence.

The English word prognosis is derived from the Greek word προγινώσκω: a combination of πρό (before) + γινώσκω (to know). A prognosis, then, comes from previous knowledge. According to God’s prognosis (foreknowledge), He marked off the bounds of those He called into the Church to be conformed to the image of His Son (Romans 8:29). God did not cast away the people He foreknew (Romans 11:2). Christ was foreknown before the foundations of the world, but was manifested in the last times (1 Peter 1:20). The first believers in the resurrected Christ who resided in Jerusalem, where scattered according to the foreknowledge of God (1 Peter 1:1–2).

The root meaning of the preposition περί means around. The genitive and accusative cases may use this preposition. When used with the genitive, it expresses “about” in a generally concerning manner. The accusative employs it to convey “around” relating to position, and specifically about. In composition, περί keeps its root meaning, “around”, adding emphasis.

Because the law was weak through the flesh, the Son of God came in the likeness of sinful flesh concerning sin (Romans 8:3). Christ is a priest after the order of Melchizedek, not of the Levitical order. He is from the tribe of Judah, a tribe Moses spoke nothing about a priesthood (Hebrews 7:14). Christ suffered once concerning sins, the just for the unjust, that He should bring us to God (1 Peter 3:18). So great a cloud of witnesses surrounds us. From Abel to Rahab, the evidence of faith is clearly displayed. Can we even have enough time to speak concerning Gideon, Barak, Samson, Jephthah, David, Samuel, the prophets, and all those who trusted in God, leaving a witness of faith? (Hebrews 11:32).

The genitive uses περί with πᾶς to express, “generally concerning all things.” In 3 John 2, the apostle pens, “Beloved, generally concerning all things I request you to prosper and be in good health, just as your soul prospers.” Enoch, the seventh from Adam, prophesied the LORD coming with ten thousands of His saints to execute judgement according to all things, to convict the soul generally concerning all things from the works of the ungodly, and generally concerning all the harsh things which the sinners have spoken against Him (Jude 15).

While Cornelius was praying, specifically about the night hour of the day, he saw a vision of a angel of God, who instructed him to send for Peter (Acts 10:3). The next day, as the men from Cornelius traveled, at specifically the sixth hour, Peter went to the rooftop to pray (Acts 10:9).

When Paul and those around him sailed from Paphos, they came to Perga in Pamphylia, from which John Mark departed to return to Jerusalem (Acts 13:13). In response to a large crowd of Jews seeking to kill him, Paul proclaims he is a Jew from Tarsus to the commander who saved him. He then addresses the crowd, proclaiming all that God had done, for he was Saul, who persecuted those of the way until the Lord corrected his path. While he was on the road to Damascus to continue his campaign against those proclaiming the resurrection of Christ, specifically about noon a great light came from heaven (Acts 22:6).

περί may express “in behalf of.” In Matthew 26:28, περί expresses “in behalf of” concerning the blood of the new covenant. This blood was shed in behalf of many for the sending away of sins. Every high priest taken from men is appointed on behalf of men in the things pertaining to God. He can be compassionate on those who are ignorant and have gone astray because he himself is subject to weakness. Because of his own weakness, he is required to make a sacrifice in behalf of the people and himself (Hebrews 5:3).

In composition, περί retains its root meaning of around.

John came proclaiming to Israel to make straight the way of the Lord. In Jerusalem and all of Judea, along with the surrounding regions, many went to the Jordan to be immersed by him (Matthew 3:5). In Acts 28:20, Paul speaks of his bound around him because of the hope of Israel. περιπατέω describes a person’s conduct by using περί with walk, Ephesians 5:2. περιβάλλω conveys throwing clothing on, Revelation 1:13. Being a busybody or meddling in others’ affairs is expressed by περιεργάζομαι (περί with ἐργάζομαι–work), 2 Thessalonians 3:11. To stand away with uses περί with ἵστημι to convey withdraw (περιίστημι), 2 Timothy 2:16.

Three cases utilize παρά. The ablative, which expresses source or separation, the locative emphasizing location, and the accusative. Therefore, παρά conveys “by the side of”, “from the side of”, or “beside”, “beyond”, “against (contrary to)”.

When παρά is utilized with the ablative case, it indicates source or separation. In response to the Jews (religious leaders) complaining about Jesus saying He is the bread that came down out from heaven, Jesus states no one can come to Him unless the Father draws him. Thus it is written, “And they will all be taught from God, all the ones hearing and learning from the Father come to Me.” (John 6:45). Paul did not receive his gospel from men, nor was he taught is from men. He received the gospel through a revelation from Christ Jesus (Galatians 1:12). Grace, peace, and mercy are from God the Father towards us (2 John 3). The stone that the builders rejected has become the chief cornerstone. This has come to be from the Lord (Matthew 21:42). When Mary visited Elizabeth while both of them were pregnant, the babe in Elizabeth’s womb jumped for joy. Elizabeth responded, saying, “Happy is the one who believes, for there will be a fulfillment of those things which were told her from the Lord (Luke 1:45). John the Baptist was sent from God to bear witness of the light (John 1:6).

When the locative case uses the assistance of παρά, it conveys location. We are all bought with a price. Therefore, he who is called is not to seek to change his social state because of his calling by the Lord. Each one is to remain alongside God in the state in which he was called (1 Corinthians 7:24). For what credit is it if we suffer because of our own faults and take it with patience? It is better to suffer with patience while doing good, for this is grace alongside God (1 Peter 2:20). The Lord is not slacked in His promises. Alongside Him, a day is as a thousand years, and a thousand years as a day (2 Peter 3:8). Angels will not speak blasphemy against another being of higher rank (2 Peter 2:11). It is a righteous matter alongside God to repay with tribulations those who trouble the saints (2 Thessalonians 1:6). The things that are impossible alongside men are possible alongside God (Luke 18:27).

The accusative case will use παρά to articulate “beside”, “beyond”, or “against (contrary to)”. In Hebrews 3:3, the proper opinion of Christ Jesus is beyond the glory of Moses. In contrast to her age, Sarah bore a son (Hebrews 11:11). Abel’s offering was more excellent than Cain’s offering because it was out from faith (Hebrews 11:4). Jesus was made a little lower than the angels in order to die for our sins and be raised unto glory (Hebrews 2:7, 9). The saints in Macedonia freely gave beyond their ability to support the saints in Jerusalem, understanding the value of being in the body of Christ (2 Corinthians 8:3). One person may esteem a day against another regarding its religious value (Romans 14:5). Those who are unthankful and reject God are turned over to their vile passions to dishonor their own bodies, even exchanging the natural use of the women for that which is against nature (Romans 1:26).

κατά is a relatively flexible and context-dependent word. Its root meaning is down. In composition, it retains its root meaning while it intensifies, alters, or adds nuance to the base word. 

Three of the eight cases utilize κατά: Genitive to express “down” or “against (contrary to)”, ablative to convey “down from”, to emphasize separation, and accusative to communicate “according to”, “with reference to”, or “as measured by”. 

In Matthew 1:20, the accusative case uses κατά to indicate that, according to a dream, Joseph was informed not to be afraid to take Mary for his wife. After the Magi did not return to Herod, he sent men into Bethlehem and all its districts to destroy any child two years or younger according to the time which the Magi had determined the King of the Jews was born (Matthew 2:16). Paul records he was separated unto the gospel of God which He promised before by the prophets concerning Jesus Christ who was born of David according to the flesh, and declared the Son of God according to the Spirit of Holiness out from the resurrection of the dead (Romans 1:1–4). 

In Matthew 5:11, the genitive case uses κατά to mean ‘against’. “Happy are you when they revile and persecute you, and say all kinds of malignant evil against you ...” Every man that prays having a covering down upon his head, dishonors his head (1 Corinthians 11:4). 

The ablative case employs κατά to convey separation. In Mark 5:13, κατά expresses “down from.” The herd ran down from the steep place into the sea and drowned. The assemblies in Macedonia sent a gift to assist the saints in Jerusalem. Even though they were under great trial and affliction, the abundance of their joy and down from their deep poverty, they abounded in the riches of their liberty in Christ (2 Corinthians 8:2). 

κατά, in composition, conveys a rich array of context-dependent meanings. 

γνύω (break down) uses κατά to emphasize breaking into pieces, shattering, or crushing. Herod permitted the Jews to crush the legs of the men hanging on the crosses because it was the Preparation Day (John 19:31). During Christ’s earthly ministry, He did not resist the evil of the leaders who rejected Him. He walked in such a manner as not to crush a bruised reed (Matthew 12:20). 

When κατά is used with ἀργέω / ἀργός (idle, ineffective, without effect), it expresses rendering ineffective. In Romans 6:6, the sin nature is rendered ineffective for those who are in Christ. The law is rendered ineffective in Christ (Romans 7:6). In 1 Corinthians 13:8, when the full revelation comes, that which is out from a part is rendered ineffective. The completion of the canon of Scripture also impacts the Spiritual gift of knowledge. Christ rendered death ineffective through His resurrection (2 Timothy 1:10). 

Employing κατά with ἀλλάσσω (to exchange) conveys reconciliation. While we were enemies, we were reconciled to God through the death of His Son (Romans 5:10). A woman who separates from her husband, having no right to divorce, is to remain unmarried or reconcile with her husband (1 Corinthians 7:11). As ambassadors of Christ, we are to encourage the world to be reconciled to God (2 Corinthians 5:20). 

Using κατά with ἐργάζομαι (work) means to work out thoroughly or accomplish. The sin nature thoroughly works out death through what is good (Romans 7:13). Godly sorrow works out a change of mind, in contrast to worldly sorrow that produces death (2 Corinthians 7:10). The testing for approval of our faith thoroughly works out patience (James 1:3).

The preposition ἐν conveys location, means, sphere, and may introduce a temporal clause when used with an infinitive and finite verbs. Scripture utilizes it nearly two thousand eight hundred times, and it occurs in compound words at least three hundred times. 

When used with the locative case, ἐν expresses in, on, at, among, or with. ἐν with the locative is typically with words of place, but also occurs relating to time.

• Before Mary and Joseph came together, she was found with child (having in womb) out from the Holy Spirit (Matthew 1:18).

• After Jesus was born in Bethlehem of Judea, the Magi from the east came (Matthew 2:1).

• In those days Peter stood up in the midst of the disciples (Acts 1:15).

• David’s tomb is with Israel to this day (Acts 2:29).

• One among the saints who commits such a sin that not even the gentiles would approve (1 Corinthians 5:1).

ἐν uses the instrumental case to express means, with, or by.

• Paul asks the Corinthian saints if he should come with a rod, or in love and a spirit of objectivity (1 Corinthians 4:21).

• Some will be killed by means of the sword, hunger, or death (Revelation 6:8).

• Once a year, the high priest must enter the holy of holies utilizing the blood of another (Hebrews 9:25).

• The suppression of truth with unrighteousness (Romans 1:18).

ἐν will express sphere; the realm or domain within which an action or state exists.

• The assemblies of Judea which were in Christ (Galatians 1:22).

• I tell you the truth in Christ (Romans 9:1).

• We are not in flesh, but spirit (Romans 8:9).

• We are chosen in Christ (Ephesians 1:4).

• Those who are in Christ, the new creation (2 Corinthians 5:17).

The temporal clause ἐν ᾧ, while, frequently uses both the infinitive and finite verbs

• The sons of the bridegroom do not fast while with the bridegroom (Luke 5:34).

• And while he showed (ἐν τῷ σπείρειν) some seed fell on the wayside (Matthew 13:4).

• It came to be that while (ἐν τῷ εἶναι) they were there, her days for delivery were complete (Luke 2:6).

• In the days (Ἐν ταύταις δὲ ταῖς ἡμέραις) of Claudius Caesar, prophets from Jerusalem came to Antioch (Acts 11:27).

εἰς is used only with the accusative case. It is used more than seventeen hundred times in Scripture. Its primary use is to denote entrance or direction towards. Its remote meanings include in the sphere of, against, upon, and causal. Purpose or result are derived when εἰς used with an infinitive.

εἰς is commonly used to express entrance or direction towards.

When the Magi from the east came into the house where the young Christ child resided, they worshipped Him (Matthew 2:9).

Those who keep the Messiah’s words would not see death into the age (John 8:51).

God the Father sent His Son into the world (John 3:17).

Tongues are unto a sign, not for those who believe, but for the unbelievers (1 Corinthians 14:22).

Peter and John fix their eyes towards a lame man begging for alms (Acts 3:4).

εἰς may denote sphere, or location.

The slave does not abide in the house into the age, where the Son abides into the age (John 8:35).

Go in peace (Luke 8:48).

When εἰς is used with a plural, it expresses among.

The saying went out among the brethren that the disciple, John, would not die (John 21:23).

εἰς may express against, or contrary to.

Anyone speaking a word against the Son of Man (Luke 12:10).

If a brother sins against you (Matthew 18:15).

The carnal mind is against God (Romans 8:7).

εἰς may be used to express reference towards.

Christ is an end unto (with reference to) righteousness to all who believe (Romans 10:4).

Wise concerning what is good and simply with reference towards wrong (Romans 16:19).

εἰς may denote equivalence.

I will be to him as a father (Hebrews 1:5).

Having received the law as from messengers (Acts 7:53).

εἰς may express cause

I indeed immerse because of a change of mind (Matthew 3:11).

Abraham did not waver because of the promise of God (Romans 4:20).

Immersion because of the sending away of sin (Acts 2:38).

The men of Nineveh changed their minds because of the preaching of Jonah (Matthew 12:41).

The heart believes because of righteousness, and verbal agreement is made because of salvation (Romans 10:9).

When εἰς is used to express purpose, it is primarily used with the infinitive.

When the brethren meet for the purpose of eating, they are to wait upon each other. If someone cannot wait due to hunger, let him eat at home (1 Corinthians 11:33).

Paul came to Troas with the purpose of evangelizing the Christ (2 Corinthians 2:12).

I long to see you for the purpose of establishing you (Romans 1:11).